Author's: Samantha Raed
Affilation: Al Qasimia University, United Arab Emirates
Volume 1, Issue 1, 2026 | Pages: 22–33 |
Google scholar link → Download PDFTrace element contamination in desalination-dependent water systems represents a growing slow-onset disaster risk with significant implications for environmental safety, public health, and governance resilience in arid regions such as the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). This study examines arsenic, lead, mercury, and cadmium contamination in GCC water systems from a disaster risk reduction (DRR) and governance perspective. It investigates how institutional arrangements, technological systems, and environmental processes interact to shape water security under climate and disaster stress. Using a qualitative research design based on secondary data including peer-reviewed literature policy reports and international frameworks the study applies thematic analysis guided by a multi-level governance and institutional resilience framework. The analysis focuses on contamination sources treatment technology performance regulatory structures and digital monitoring approaches. Findings show that trace element contamination is driven by interconnected industrial agricultural and desalination pathways confirming its systemic nature. Although reverse osmosis nanofiltration and ion-exchange technologies demonstrate high theoretical efficiency real-world performance is inconsistent due to operational stress feedwater variability and maintenance constraints. Governance fragmentation uneven enforcement and weak regional coordination significantly constrain system effectiveness. The study finds limited integration of GIS remote sensing and AI-driven predictive systems reducing early warning and adaptive capacity. It concludes that trace element risks in the GCC are not primarily technological but socio-technical emerging from interactions between infrastructure institutions and environmental stressors. The study contributes governance-oriented disaster risk perspective emphasizing integrated data-driven and regionally coordinated water governance regulatory coherence digital integration spatial intelligence enhance resilience under environmental pressure
trace elements, desalination, GCC, disaster risk reduction, water governance, institutional resilience.
1. Abolafia, J. (2025). Emerging contaminants reveal flaws in the Safe Drinking Water Act. Colorado Natural Resources, Energy & Environmental Law Review, 36, 109.
2. Al-Kaabi, A., Al-Sulaiti, H., Al-Ansari, T., & Mackey, H. R. (2021). Assessment of water quality variations on pretreatment and environmental impacts of SWRO desalination. Desalination, 500, 114831.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2020.114831
3. Almalki, S. (2016). Integrating quantitative and qualitative data in mixed methods research—Challenges and benefits. Journal of Education and Learning, 5(3), 288. https://doi.org/10.5539/jel.v5n3p288
4. Angelakis, A., & Snyder, S. A. (2015). Wastewater treatment and reuse: Past, present, and future. Water, 7(9), 4887–4895. https://doi.org/10.3390/w7094887
5. Al-Saidi, M., Ellermann, A.-K., Fittkow, M. F., Perillieux, T. R., Saadaoui, I., & Ben-Hamadou, R. (2024). The perils of building big: Desalination sustainability and brine regulation in the Arab Gulf countries. Water Resources and Industry, 32, 100259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wri.2024.100259
6. Arun, K. K., Al Yasi, H. S., Wada, O. Z., AlMomani, F., & Mahmoud, K. A. (2026). Comprehensive review of PFAS occurrence, regulatory frameworks, analytical, and remediation methodologies: Emphasis on the Arabian Gulf and arid regions. Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology. Advance online publication.
https://doi.org/10.1039/D5EW00570A
7. Atef, R. (2026). Leading in the metaverse: Virtual innovation for leadership and team development. Development and Learning in Organizations: An International Journal, 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1108/DLO-07-2025-0275
8. Atef, R., & Ramachandran, B. (2025). Organizational innovation for sustainable globalization: Balancing technological transition with climate and geopolitical challenges. Arab Gulf Journal of Scientific Research, 43(1), 60–80. https://doi.org/10.1108/AGJSR-03-2025-0040
9. Awashreh, R. (2025a). Omani public governance in the age of artificial intelligence. In Public governance practices in the age of AI (pp. 137–166). A'Sharqiyah University, Oman. https://doi.org/10.4018/979-8-3693-9286-7.ch007
10. Awashreh, R. (2025b). Leadership in the pursuit of net-zero emissions: overcoming barriers and embracing strategic innovation. Arab Gulf Journal of Scientific Research, 43(1), 18–36. https://doi.org/10.1108/AGJSR-02-2025-0030
11. Awashreh, R. (2025c). Rethinking local electoral participation and governance in the GCC: Beyond citizenship. In Intersecting public administration and technology for public trust and citizen engagement (pp. 375–400).
https://doi.org/10.4018/979-8-3693-9709-1.ch014
12. Awashreh, R. (2026). Entrepreneurial mindsets and sustainable ecosystem development in arid regions: A comparative analysis of North Africa and the Gulf Cooperation Council. Arab Gulf Journal of Scientific Research, 44(1). https://doi.org/10.1108/AGJSR-10-2025-0185
13. Azmi, L. S., Jabit, N. ‘A., Ismail, S., Ku Ishak, K. E. H., & Abdullah, T. K. (2025). Membrane filtration technologies for sustainable industrial wastewater treatment: A review of heavy metal removal. Desalination and Water Treatment, 323, 101321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dwt.2025.101321
14. Ben Rouane, D., Ait Errouhi, A., & Mghaiouini, R. (2025). Seawater desalination: A review of technologies, environmental impacts, and future perspectives. Desalination and Water Treatment, 324, 101578.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dwt.2025.101578
15. Connor, R., Mountford, L., Pischke, F., & Winpenny, J. (2014). Creating an enabling environment for change. In The United Nations World Water Development Report 2014 (pp. 103–108). United Nations World Water Assessment Programme. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000225746
16. Baldwin, E. (2017). Exploring how institutional arrangements shape stakeholder influence on policy decisions: A comparative analysis in the energy sector. Public Administration Review, 79(1). https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.12953
17. Balzano, M., Marzi, G., & Turzo, T. (2025). SMEs and institutional theory: Major inroads and opportunities ahead. Management Decision, 63(13), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1108/MD-05-2023-0734
18. Brack, W., Dulio, V., Ågerstrand, M., Allan, I., Altenburger, R., Brinkmann, M., Bunke, D., Burgess, R. M., Cousins, I., Escher, B. I., Hernández, F. J., Hewitt, L. M., Hilscherová, K., Hollender, J., Hollert, H., Kase, R., Klauer, B., Lindim, C., Herráez, D. L., … Vrana, B. (2017). Towards the review of the European Union Water Framework Directive: Recommendations for more efficient assessment and management of chemical contamination in European surface water resources. Science of the Total Environment, 576, 720–737. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.10.104
19. Bystrom, O., Dussaux, D., & Hassett, K. (2025). Improving evidence-based assessments of environmental policies (OECD Environment Working Papers No. 256). Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).
https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/26dc0fa5-en
20. Castro, K., & Abejón, R. (2024). Removal of heavy metals from wastewaters and other aqueous streams by pressure-driven membrane technologies: An outlook on reverse osmosis, nanofiltration, ultrafiltration and microfiltration potential from a bibliometric analysis. Membranes, 14(8), 180. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes14080180
21. Chaterera-Zambuko, F. (2025). Environmental sustainability in the United Arab Emirates’ digital records management landscape: An analysis of strategies and policies. Sustainability, 17(14), 6266. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17146266
22. Copetti, D., & Erba, S. (2024). A bibliometric review on the Water Framework Directive twenty years after its birth. Ambio, 53(1), 95–108. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-023-01918-0
23. Cuaton, G. P., Su, Y., Katic, P., & Yarime, M. (2024). Unpacking water governance dynamics and its implications for household water security in post-disaster resettlement communities in the Philippines. Geoforum, 154, 104053.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2024.104053
24. Edgar, M., & Boyer, T. H. (2021). Nitrate adsorption and desorption during biological ion exchange. Separation and Purification Technology, 285, 120363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2021.120363
25. Ejiohuo, O., Onyeaka, H., Akinsemolu, A., Nwabor, O. F., Siyanbola, K. F., Tamasiga, P., & Al-Sharify, Z. T. (2025). Ensuring water purity: Mitigating environmental risks and safeguarding human health. Water Biology and Security, 4(2), 100341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watbs.2024.100341
26. Erabee, I. K. (2024). Water pollution during petroleum industry process. International Journal of Environmental Impacts, 7(4), 615–622. https://doi.org/10.18280/ijei.070402
27. Farfán Chilicaus, G. C., Cruz Salinas, L. E., Silva León, P. M., Lizarzaburu Aguinaga, D. A., Vera Zelada, P., Vera Zelada, L. A., Luque Luque, E. O., Licapa Redolfo, R., & Ramos Farroñán, E. V. (2025). Circular economy and water sustainability: Systematic review of water management technologies and strategies (2018–2024). Sustainability, 17(14), 6544. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17146544
28. Gilani, I. E., Hosseini, H., Al-Ghouti, M. A., Saadaoui, I., & Sayadi, S. (2024). Microalgal-based desalination brine remediation: Achievements, challenges, and future research trends. Environmental Technology & Innovation, 34, 103592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2024.103592
29. Goel, A., Masurkar, S., & Pathade, G. R. (2024). An overview of digital transformation and environmental sustainability: Threats, opportunities, and solutions. Sustainability, 16(24), 11079. https://doi.org/10.3390/su162411079
30. Habineza, E., Makwinja, R., & Inagaki, Y. (2023). Contamination and health risks of trace metals in water and sediments of May Sieley stream, Ethiopia. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 129, 103315.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2022.103315
31. Haby, M., Reveiz, L., Thomas, R., & Jordan, H. (2025). An integrated framework to guide evidence-informed public health policymaking. Journal of Public Health Policy, 46(1), 193–210. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41271-024-00535-9
32. Haidari, A. H., van Dijk, T., Siegers, W. G., Rijnaarts, T., & Cornelissen, E. R. (2025). Using BWRO for removal of Arsenic III from anaerobic groundwater. Desalination and Water Treatment, 323, 101400.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dwt.2025.101400
33. Hui, X., Sheikh Asadi, A. M., Fakhri, Y., Mehri, F., Limam, I., & Thai, V. N. (2023). Potential toxic elements in coastal sediment of the Persian Gulf: A systematic review–meta analysis, non dietary risk assessment and ecological risk assessment. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 30(24), 64891–64903.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-26949-8
34. Jin, X., Wu, Q., Peñuelas, J., et al. (2025). Climate and anthropogenic activities control the concentrations of copper, zinc, cadmium and chromium in global inland waters. Communications Earth & Environment, 6, 520.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02508-6
35. Khan, N. A., Singh, S., López-Maldonado, E. A., Pavithra, N., Méndez-Herrera, P. F., López-López, J. R., Baig, U., Ramamurthy, P. C., Mubarak, N. M., Karri, R. R., & Aljundi, I. H. (2023). Emerging membrane technology and hybrid treatment systems for the removal of micropollutants from wastewater. Desalination, 565, 116873.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2023.116873
36. Khan, M. I., Bicer, Y., Asif, M., Al-Ansari, T. A., Khan, M., Kurniawan, T. A., & Al-Ghamdi, S. G. (2024). The GCC’s path to a sustainable future: Navigating the barriers to the adoption of energy efficiency measures in the built environment. Energy Conversion and Management: X, 23, 100636. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecmx.2024.100636
37. Khatoon, N., Ali, S., Li, Z., Xue, M., Han, Y., Pan, T., Zhang, X., Yu, Z., & Zhao, X. (2025). From source to prediction: Heavy metals toxicity, health risks, detection techniques and AI-enhanced predictive models (2019–2024). Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hazadv.2025.100981
38. López-Alonso, M., Rivas, I., & Miranda, M. (2025). Trace mineral imbalances in global health: Challenges, biomarkers, and the role of serum analysis. Nutrients, 17(13), 2241. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17132241
39. Luo, B., Cao, X., & Sun, K. (2025). Dilemma in global governance of marine plastic pollution and regulatory coordination: Convention reconstruction via integrated international law. Frontiers in Marine Science, 12, Article 1687898.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2025.1687898
40. Leon-Zerpa, F., & Ramos, A. (2021). Performance analysis of a full-scale desalination plant with reverse osmosis membranes for irrigation. Membranes, 11(10), 774. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes11100774
41. Mahmoud, A. E. D., & Mostafa, E. (2023). Nanofiltration membranes for the removal of heavy metals from aqueous solutions: Preparations and applications. Membranes, 13(9), 789. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes13090789
42. Maione, C., Vito, D., & Fernandez, G. (2024). Monitoring the effects of transboundary water pollution in Imperial Beach, California. Medical Sciences Forum, 25(1), 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/msf2024025014
43. Maqdasi, B., Alhseinat, E., Rodríguez, J., & Al-Ali, K. (2025). Ammonia recovery from wastewater: A critical review of technologies with emphasis on capacitive deionization. Chemical Engineering Journal Advances, 24, 100901. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceja.2025.100901
44. Maeda, Y. (2024). Fouling of reverse osmosis (RO) and nanofiltration (NF) membranes by low molecular weight organic compounds (LMWOCs), Part 1: Fundamentals and mechanism. Membranes, 14(10), 221.
https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes14100221
45. Martins, F. S., & Cunha, J. A. C. da. (2018). Secondary data in research – Uses and opportunities. Revista Ibero-Americana de Estratégia, 17(04), 01–04. https://doi.org/10.5585/ijsm.v17i4.2723
46. Moossa, B., Trivedi, P., Saleem, H., & Zaidi, J. (2022). Desalination in the GCC countries: A review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 357(1–3), 131717. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.131717
47. Morgante, C., Herrero-Gonzalez, M., Lopez, J., Imholze, J., Boffa, V., Ibañez, R., & Cortina, J. L. (2026). A global outlook of the desalination industry and state-of-the-art technologies for brine valorisation. Desalination, 621, 119718.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2025.119718
48. Nuruzzaman, M., Bahar, M. M., & Naidu, R. (2025). Diffuse soil pollution from agriculture: Impacts and remediation. Science of The Total Environment, 962, 178398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2025.178398
49. Ogunbiyi, O., Al-Rewaily, R., Saththasivam, J., Lawler, J., & Liu, Z. (2023). Oil spill management to prevent desalination plant shutdown from the perspectives of offshore cleanup, seawater intake and onshore pretreatment. Desalination, 564, 116780. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2023.116780
50. Osae, R., Hayford, O., Owusu, F., & Aidoo, P. (2026). A literature review on heavy metal pollution in aquatic environments: Assessment methods, ecotoxicological impacts, and health risk implications. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 224, 119045. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2025.119045
51. Onyango, G. (2023). Collaborative public governance in African public administration contexts: Problems of realising joint actions in multi-agency arrangements.
52. Pham, T. A. (2026). From data to decisions: A digital twin–driven framework for intelligent and sustainable infrastructure systems. Sustainable Cities and Society: Advances, 2(2), 100061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scsadv.2026.100061
53. Qi, J., Leng, H., & Yuan, Q. (2025). Reconceptualizing social–ecological resilience to disaster risks under climate change: A bibliometric and theoretical synthesis. Sustainability, 17(24), 11320. https://doi.org/10.3390/su172411320
54. Sierra, C., Alvarez, J. R., & Rodríguez Gallego, J. L. (2013). Nanofiltration of acid mine drainage in an abandoned mercury mining area. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 224(10). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-013-1734-7
55. Sheema, M. K., Hosen, Z., Shimki, A. I., Mim, M. F., & Rahman, M. R. (2024). Errors in agricultural practices increase the toxicity of heavy metals in the food chain at Ishwardi Upazila in Bangladesh. Heliyon, 10(7), e29314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e29314
56. Sherif, M., Liaqat, M. U., Baig, F., & Al-Rashed, M. (2023). Water resources availability, sustainability and challenges in the GCC countries: An overview. Heliyon, 9(10), e20543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e20543
57. Tortajada, C., Radcliffe, J. C., van Rensburg, P., & González-Gómez, F. (2025). Sustainable water reuse for water security. Environmental Research Letters, 20, 021003. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/adaf46
58. Watkins Jacobs, D. C. (2024). Secondary data in mixed methods research. Sage Research Methods.
https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071938997
59. Yu, B., Zhang, Z., Jiang, M., et al. (2025). An evolutionary governance framework for the sustainable management of urban wetlands: Integrating theoretical perspectives and practical applications. Sustainability Science.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-025-01765-w
60. Yeung, K., & Ranchordás, S. (2024). Regulatory compliance, public enforcement and private certification. In An introduction to law and regulation: Text and materials (pp. 275–300). Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009379007.012
61. WWAP, United Nations World Water Assessment Programme. (2017). The United Nations World Water Development Report 2017: Wastewater: The untapped resource. UNESCO.
62. Xenitopoulos, T., Anagnostopoulos, A., Sioutopoulos, D., Plakas, K., & Seferlis, P. (2026). Univariate anomaly detection in pressure data of a pilot aerobic membrane bioreactor unit using long short-term memory autoencoders. Environmental Research, 291, 123524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2025.123524